By Annie Wright, LMFT · Licensed Marriage & Family Therapist (#95719)Clinically reviewed May 2026LAST UPDATED: APRIL 2026
Many women are unsure whether their relationship “qualifies” as narcissistic abuse. And that uncertainty creates a barrier to seeking recovery. This article resolves that doubt with clinical precision without encouraging armchair diagnosis of the ex-partner. The question isn’t “was he a narcissist?”. It’s “did the relationship produce harm that requires specific recovery work?” That reframe is liberating, and it removes the diagnostic gatekeeping that keeps too many women from getting the help they need.
Last reviewed: June 2026 by Annie Wright, LMFT
- Seven Months of Conducting a Diagnostic Assessment on a Man She’s No Longer With
- The Clinical Distinction: What Makes a Relationship Narcissistically Abusive
- The Neurobiology of Betrayal Trauma: Why the Wound Is Specific
- The Spectrum: Narcissistic Traits vs. Narcissistic Abuse
- The CPTSD Question: The Most Recovery-Relevant Indicator
- How It Shows Up in Driven Women
- Both/And: You Don’t Need His Diagnosis to Know You Need Recovery
- The Systemic Lens: Why We Require Victims to Prove the Diagnosis Before Allowing Them to Heal
- Frequently Asked Questions
Seven Months of Conducting a Diagnostic Assessment on a Man She’s No Longer With
| Dimension | Narcissistic Abuse | Difficult Relationship |
|---|---|---|
| The defining feature | A systematic pattern of reality-distortion and psychological control. Gaslighting, intermittent reinforcement, and deliberate (or functional) manipulation that damages the target’s perception of reality. | Real challenges. Conflict, incompatibility, poor communication, or hurtful behavior. Without the systematic campaign to distort the other person’s sense of reality. |
| Accountability for harm | Structurally absent. The narcissistic partner consistently avoids genuine accountability through DARVO, blame-shifting, and reality-distortion; taking responsibility threatens the ego structure. | Imperfect but possible. Both partners may be defensive, but accountability is accessible; people can eventually take responsibility even when it’s hard. |
| Reality-testing in the relationship | Systematically undermined. The partner of a narcissist often leaves the relationship doubting their own memory, perception, and emotional responses. | Intact. Even in difficult relationships, both people generally agree on basic facts; the disagreement is about interpretation, values, or behavior rather than what actually occurred. |
| How it affects the target’s self-concept | Significantly. Narcissistic abuse produces identity erosion over time; clients describe losing track of who they are, what they value, and what they’re entitled to want. | May produce hurt, frustration, and self-doubt, but typically doesn’t produce the same systematic identity erosion that narcissistic abuse creates over time. |
| The aftermath | Clients often present with C-PTSD-adjacent symptoms. Hypervigilance, intrusive thoughts about the relationship, difficulty trusting their perceptions, and profound grief. | Grief and disappointment are real. Ending a difficult relationship is painful. But the recovery typically doesn’t require the same level of reality-reconstruction that narcissistic abuse demands. |
| Why I’m careful about diagnosing from a distance | I don’t diagnose someone’s partner without assessing them. But I do help clients map the pattern of what they’ve experienced and assess whether it meets the hallmarks of abuse. | Not every painful or even harmful relationship is abuse. And recognizing that distinction matters for how a person approaches their own healing and their future choices. |
Nicole is 37, an organizational psychologist in Boston. She knows what NPD looks like. She has the DSM criteria memorized. Her ex doesn’t quite meet all of them. He met some. She’s been conducting a diagnostic assessment of a man she’s no longer with for seven months, using her professional knowledge as the tool, and she still can’t close the case.
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She’s starting to understand that the inability to close the case might be the whole point. The diagnostic uncertainty is not a failure of her professional knowledge. It is a feature of the dynamic. The same dynamic that made it impossible to name what was happening while she was in it. The covert narcissist’s behavior is designed to be deniable, to be ambiguous, to resist the kind of clear categorization that would allow the target to name it and respond to it. The diagnostic uncertainty that Nicole is experiencing now is the post-relationship continuation of the same reality-distortion that characterized the relationship itself. Reading about the specific signs of a covert narcissistic relationship can help provide that clear categorization. The behavioral checklist that makes the pattern recognizable even when the behavior was invisible in the moment.
This article is for Nicole. And for every woman who has been trying to determine whether her relationship “qualifies” as narcissistic abuse, who has been conducting a diagnostic assessment of her ex using whatever tools she has available, and who still can’t close the case. The article will not give her a diagnosis of her ex. What it will give her is a different question. One that is more useful for recovery and one that she can actually answer.
The Clinical Distinction: What Makes a Relationship Narcissistically Abusive
Lundy Bancroft, MA, counselor and researcher, author of Why Does He Do That?, provides the most important clinical reframe for this question. Bancroft’s central argument. The one that is most useful for the woman trying to determine whether her relationship “qualifies”. Is that abuse is about a pattern of behavior that harms, not a diagnosis. A man does not need NPD to engage in abusive behavior. A man does not need to meet the full DSM criteria for narcissistic personality disorder to engage in the specific pattern of behavior that produces narcissistic abuse.
The question that Bancroft’s framework directs us toward is not “does he have NPD?” but “did the relationship involve a pattern of behavior that systematically harmed her?” That question can be answered without a diagnosis. It can be answered by looking at the target’s experience: the specific symptoms she carries, the specific ways her sense of reality was affected, the specific ways her capacity to trust her own perceptions was eroded.
Elinor Greenberg, PhD, psychologist and author of Borderline, Narcissistic, and Schizoid Adaptations, provides the clinical distinction between a “difficult personality” and a “narcissistic adaptation” that is most useful for this question. A difficult personality produces friction, conflict, and distress in relationships. But it does not systematically erode the target’s sense of reality. A narcissistic adaptation produces a specific pattern of harm: the systematic reality-distortion, the erosion of the target’s capacity to trust her own perceptions, the covert devaluation that is invisible to outside observers. The distinction is not about the severity of the distress. It is about the specific nature of the harm.
A term used in the survivor community (not yet a formal DSM diagnosis) to describe the cluster of symptoms. Hypervigilance, self-doubt, difficulty trusting perceptions, trauma bonding, emotional dysregulation. That result from sustained narcissistic abuse. The term was developed to describe the specific, recognizable pattern of harm that prolonged narcissistic abuse produces, regardless of whether the person causing it has a formal NPD diagnosis. (Arabi, Becoming the Narcissist’s Nightmare, 2016; Malkin, Rethinking Narcissism, 2015.)
In plain terms: The specific, recognizable pattern of harm that prolonged narcissistic abuse produces. Regardless of whether the person causing it has a formal NPD diagnosis. If the symptoms fit, the recovery work is the same.
The Neurobiology of Betrayal Trauma: Why the Wound Is Specific
Jennifer Freyd, PhD, professor emerita (University of Oregon), provides the framework for understanding why the wound produced by narcissistic abuse is specific. And why it is different from the wound produced by a merely difficult relationship. Freyd’s betrayal trauma theory establishes that the harm is most severe when the person causing it is also the attachment figure. When the person who is supposed to be safe is the source of the threat.
The relational trauma framework is essential for understanding why narcissistic abuse produces such specific and lasting harm. The target of narcissistic abuse is not harmed by a stranger or an event. She is harmed by the person she was most attached to. The person she trusted most, the person she organized her life around, the person whose reality she accepted as her own. The harm is amplified by the attachment. The more she loved him, the more the harm penetrated.
Bessel van der Kolk, MD, psychiatrist and trauma researcher, author of The Body Keeps the Score, provides the neurobiological dimension. The betrayal trauma produced by narcissistic abuse disrupts the default mode network. The brain’s system for constructing a continuous sense of self and for integrating past experience with present reality. The woman who has experienced narcissistic abuse often has a disrupted sense of continuity. Difficulty trusting her own memories, difficulty integrating her past experience with her present understanding, difficulty constructing a coherent narrative of what happened. This disruption is neurobiological. It is not a failure of intelligence or of will. It is what betrayal trauma does to the brain.
A category of psychological trauma arising from harmful experiences within close interpersonal relationships. As distinguished from trauma arising from impersonal events (accidents, natural disasters) or from strangers. Relational trauma is characterized by its intersection with attachment: the harm is produced by someone who was supposed to be safe, which amplifies the psychological impact and produces the specific features of betrayal trauma. (Freyd, Betrayal Trauma, 1996; Herman, Trauma and Recovery, 1992.)
In plain terms: Trauma that came from someone who was supposed to be safe. A partner, parent, or mentor. Rather than from a stranger or an event. The harm is amplified by the attachment. The more you trusted him, the deeper the wound.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE
Peer-reviewed findings that inform this clinical framework:
- Lifetime NPD prevalence 6.2% in US general population (PMID: 18557663)
- Lifetime NPD prevalence 7.7% in men, 4.8% in women (PMID: 18557663)
- Up to 75% of NPD diagnoses are males per DSM-5 (PMID: 37151338)
- NPD comorbidity with borderline PD OR 6.8 (PMID: 18557663)
- NPD prevalence 68.8% in Kenyan prison inmates (Ngunjiri & Waiyaki, Int J Sci Res Arch)
The Spectrum: Narcissistic Traits vs. Narcissistic Abuse
Craig Malkin, PhD, clinical psychologist and author of Rethinking Narcissism, provides the spectrum framework that is most useful for the woman trying to determine whether her relationship “qualifies.” Malkin’s research establishes that narcissistic traits exist on a continuum. From healthy self-regard at one end to pathological narcissism at the other. The question is not whether the ex had any narcissistic traits (most people do) but whether those traits were expressed in a pattern of behavior that systematically harmed the target.
The spectrum framework is liberating because it removes the binary question (“was he a narcissist or not?”) and replaces it with a more useful question: “did the pattern of behavior produce the specific harm that requires specific recovery work?” A man can have significant narcissistic traits without engaging in narcissistic abuse. A man can engage in narcissistic abuse without meeting the full criteria for NPD. The diagnostic label is less important than the behavioral pattern and the harm it produced.
The behavioral pattern that distinguishes narcissistic abuse from a difficult relationship is the systematic reality-distortion. The consistent, deliberate (or semi-deliberate) erosion of the target’s capacity to trust her own perceptions. A difficult relationship produces distress, conflict, and unhappiness. A narcissistically abusive relationship produces a specific wound to the target’s relationship with her own inner experience. A wound that requires specific recovery work to heal.
The practical test that Malkin’s framework suggests is not “did he meet the diagnostic criteria?” but “did the relationship produce the specific wound?” The woman who came out of the relationship not knowing if she can trust her own mind. Not sure what she actually feels, not sure what she actually remembers, not sure whether her read of a situation is accurate. Has the specific wound of narcissistic abuse, regardless of whether her ex has a formal diagnosis. The wound is the indicator. The wound is the recovery-relevant question.
There is also an important distinction between narcissistic traits and a narcissistic relational pattern. A person can have narcissistic traits. Can be self-focused, can have difficulty with empathy in certain contexts, can be competitive and status-conscious. Without engaging in the specific pattern of behavior that constitutes narcissistic abuse. The narcissistic traits become narcissistic abuse when they are expressed in a consistent pattern of reality-distortion, covert devaluation, and systematic erosion of the target’s self-trust. The traits are common. The pattern is specific. The distinction matters for the recovery work: the woman who was in a relationship with a person with narcissistic traits needs different support than the woman who was in a relationship with a person who engaged in the specific pattern of narcissistic abuse.
The CPTSD Question: The Most Recovery-Relevant Indicator
Judith Herman, MD, psychiatrist and trauma researcher, author of Trauma and Recovery, provides the most recovery-relevant clinical indicator: the presence of complex PTSD symptoms. Herman’s research establishes that complex PTSD. Characterized by hypervigilance, difficulty trusting perceptions, emotional dysregulation, identity disruption, and difficulty with relationships. Is the specific clinical outcome of prolonged coercive control. If the relationship produced CPTSD symptoms, that is the recovery-relevant question. Regardless of whether the person causing the harm has a formal NPD diagnosis. This is closely connected to understanding how narcissistic abuse produces complex PTSD. The research on why the specific pattern of narcissistic abuse is so reliably trauma-producing.
The CPTSD question is the most useful clinical indicator because it is answerable by the target without requiring a diagnosis of the ex. The woman who is experiencing hypervigilance, difficulty trusting her own perceptions, emotional dysregulation, identity disruption, and difficulty with relationships does not need to confirm that her ex has NPD in order to know that she needs recovery work. The symptoms are the indicator. The symptoms are the recovery-relevant question.
Pete Walker, MA, therapist and author of Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving, provides the practical framework for identifying CPTSD in the context of narcissistic abuse recovery. Walker’s description of the emotional flashback. The sudden, overwhelming return to the emotional state of the trauma. Is one of the most reliable indicators. The woman who is months or years out of the relationship and still having emotional flashbacks triggered by things that remind her of the relationship is experiencing CPTSD. That experience is the recovery-relevant indicator, regardless of the diagnostic label applied to the person who caused it.
How It Shows Up in Driven Women
Nicole, the organizational psychologist, has a specific professional vulnerability: she is trained to close cases. The inability to close the diagnostic case on her ex is experienced as a professional failure. Her therapist’s observation. That she’s spending more time diagnosing him than on her own recovery. Is accurate. Nicole knows it. The diagnostic compulsion is not about the diagnosis. It is about the sense of control that a diagnosis would provide over an experience that felt profoundly out of control. The diagnostic question has become a way of staying organized around him. Still analyzing him, still trying to understand him. Rather than turning toward herself.
Talia is 42, a surgeon in San Francisco. She’s described her relationship to four different therapists and gotten four different characterizations. One said “classic narcissistic abuse.” One said “high-conflict relationship.” One said “anxious-avoidant attachment dynamic.” One wasn’t sure. She’s started to think the label doesn’t matter as much as she thought it did. What matters is that she can barely trust her own perception in intimate relationships and hasn’t been able to for years. That’s what needs addressing, regardless of what you call the thing that caused it. This is also why understanding the healing roadmap is more useful than the diagnostic label: the roadmap addresses the symptom, not the diagnosis.
Talia’s conclusion is the most clinically important insight in this article: the label matters less than the symptom. The woman who can barely trust her own perception in intimate relationships. Regardless of what you call the thing that caused it. Needs the recovery work that addresses that specific symptom. The diagnostic label is a routing tool. The symptom is the destination. And the destination is the same regardless of the label.
If you recognize Nicole’s or Talia’s experience, you may want to read more about rebuilding trust in your own perceptions. The central recovery work for narcissistic abuse, regardless of the diagnostic label. You might also find it useful to read about the specific stages of covert narcissistic abuse recovery to understand where you are in the process.
Both/And: You Don’t Need His Diagnosis to Know You Need Recovery
This is the essential Both/And: You Don’t Need His Diagnosis to Know You Need Recovery.
The diagnostic question. Was he a narcissist?. Is genuinely interesting and potentially useful. It helps you understand the pattern, choose the right recovery resources, and make sense of what happened. AND it is not the most important question for the woman who is suffering. The most important question is: does your experience match the pattern of harm described? Do you have the symptoms that require recovery work? Those questions can be answered without a diagnosis.
The woman who is experiencing hypervigilance, difficulty trusting her own perceptions, emotional dysregulation, and identity disruption does not need to confirm that her ex has NPD in order to know that she needs recovery work. The symptoms are the indicator. The recovery work addresses the symptoms. Not the diagnosis of the person who caused them. Both truths deserve space: the diagnostic question is worth asking, and it is not the gatekeeper to your healing.
Pete Walker, MA, therapist and author of Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving, provides the most clinically useful framework for this Both/And. Walker’s concept of complex PTSD. The specific form of post-traumatic stress that results from prolonged, repeated relational trauma. Does not require a diagnosis of the person who caused it. It requires only that the person experiencing it has the specific symptom cluster: the emotional flashbacks, the inner critic, the hypervigilance, the identity disruption, the difficulty trusting her own perceptions. If you have those symptoms, you have complex PTSD. The recovery work is the same regardless of whether the person who caused it has NPD, BPD, or no diagnosis at all.
The practical implication of this Both/And is that the woman who is still trying to close the diagnostic case on her ex can redirect that energy toward the symptom question. Not “was he a narcissist?” but “do I have the symptoms of complex PTSD?” The second question has a clearer answer, and it is the question that routes her to the right recovery work. The diagnostic question about him is interesting. The symptom question about her is actionable.
Judith Herman, MD, psychiatrist and trauma researcher, author of Trauma and Recovery, is explicit about this reorientation: the recovery work begins with the survivor, not with the perpetrator. The perpetrator’s psychology is relevant context. It is not the center of the recovery work. The center is the survivor’s experience. What she is carrying, what she needs, what the recovery work involves. The sooner the woman can make that shift. From analyzing him to attending to herself. The sooner the recovery work can begin in earnest. One powerful framework for making that shift is the exercises for rebuilding your sense of reality after narcissistic abuse. Structured practices that redirect attention from him to her own inner experience.
The Systemic Lens: Why We Require Victims to Prove the Diagnosis Before Allowing Them to Heal
We cannot discuss the diagnostic gatekeeping question without discussing the cultural context in which it operates. The Systemic Lens: Why We Require Victims to Prove the Diagnosis Before Allowing Them to Heal.
There is a tendency in mental health culture to gate recovery resources behind diagnostic certainty. The implicit message is: you need to confirm that what happened to you was “real enough”. That it meets the clinical threshold. Before you are entitled to recovery resources. This mirrors the legal system’s “beyond reasonable doubt” standard being applied to personal healing decisions. It is a standard that serves no one except the people who benefit from the target’s continued uncertainty.
Diagnostic gatekeeping serves abusers by creating additional barriers for targets. The covert narcissist’s behavior is designed to be deniable. Designed to resist the kind of clear categorization that would allow the target to name it. The diagnostic uncertainty that the target experiences is a direct product of the covert narcissist’s reality-distortion. When the recovery culture requires diagnostic certainty before granting access to recovery resources, it is extending the covert narcissist’s reality-distortion into the recovery process itself.
The specific ways in which the “but was it really narcissistic abuse?” question functions as extended contact with the abuser’s reality-distortion are worth naming. Every time the target asks herself whether her experience “qualifies,” she is re-engaging with the question that the covert narcissist spent years installing in her: “is your perception of what happened accurate?” The diagnostic uncertainty is the covert narcissist’s voice, continuing to operate in her head after he is gone.
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Normalcy After the Narcissist doesn’t require that you’ve confirmed your ex was a narcissist. It requires that you recognize the pattern. The self-doubt, the reality-distortion, the difficulty trusting your own perceptions and feelings. And want a structured path through recovering from it. If that’s where you are, this is the course. You can also read more about the specific clinical distinction between narcissistic abuse and a difficult relationship to help clarify whether the recovery work is right for your experience.
“You may write me down in history / With your bitter, twisted lies, / You may trod me in the very dirt / But still, like dust, I’ll rise.”
MAYA ANGELOU, Poet, Author, and Civil Rights Activist, Still I Rise
If you are still trying to close the diagnostic case on your ex. Still conducting the assessment, still reading the research, still trying to determine whether your experience “qualifies”. I want to offer you a different question. Not “was he a narcissist?” but “do I have the symptoms that require recovery work?” If the answer to that question is yes, the recovery work is available to you. You don’t need his diagnosis to begin.
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Q: How do I know if my relationship was narcissistically abusive or just difficult?
A: The most reliable indicator is the specific nature of the harm. A difficult relationship produces distress, conflict, and unhappiness. A narcissistically abusive relationship produces a specific wound to the target’s relationship with her own inner experience. The erosion of her capacity to trust her own perceptions, the systematic reality-distortion, the hypervigilance and self-doubt that persist after the relationship ends. If you came out of the relationship not knowing if you can trust your own mind. Not sure what you actually feel, not sure what you actually remember. That is the specific wound of narcissistic abuse, regardless of the diagnostic label.
Q: Does my ex need a formal NPD diagnosis for my experience to “count”?
A: No. Lundy Bancroft’s framework is clear on this: abuse is about a pattern of behavior that harms, not a diagnosis. A man does not need NPD to engage in narcissistically abusive behavior. The recovery-relevant question is not “does he have NPD?” but “did the relationship produce the specific harm that requires specific recovery work?” That question can be answered without a diagnosis. Your experience counts regardless of whether he has a formal diagnosis.
Q: What if different therapists have given me different characterizations of the relationship?
A: This is common, and it is one of the most disorienting experiences in narcissistic abuse recovery. Different therapists will apply different frameworks to the same relational experience, and the frameworks don’t always agree. The most useful response to this is Talia’s conclusion: the label matters less than the symptom. If you can barely trust your own perception in intimate relationships. Regardless of what you call the thing that caused it. That is what needs addressing. Find a therapist who works with the symptom, not just the label.
Q: I keep going back and forth on whether it was “really” abuse. Why can’t I decide?
A: Because the covert narcissist’s behavior was designed to be deniable. Designed to resist the kind of clear categorization that would allow you to name it. The ambiguity you’re experiencing is a feature of the dynamic, not a failure of your judgment. The inability to close the case is the covert narcissist’s reality-distortion continuing to operate in your head after he is gone. Every time you ask yourself whether your experience “qualifies,” you are re-engaging with the question he spent years installing in you: “is your perception of what happened accurate?” The answer is yes. Your perception is accurate.
Q: What are the symptoms that indicate I need narcissistic abuse recovery work?
A: The most reliable indicators are: difficulty trusting your own perceptions and memories; hypervigilance in relationships (constantly monitoring for threat); emotional dysregulation that feels disproportionate to the trigger; difficulty trusting your own emotional responses; identity disruption (difficulty knowing what you want, prefer, or value outside of the relationship); and emotional flashbacks. Sudden returns to the emotional state of the relationship triggered by things in the present. If you recognize these symptoms, the recovery work is right for you, regardless of the diagnostic label applied to the relationship.
Q: My relationship wasn’t as bad as the stories I read online. Does that mean I don’t need recovery?
A: No. The comparison trap. Measuring your experience against the “worst” stories and concluding that yours doesn’t qualify. Is one of the most common barriers to seeking recovery. The recovery-relevant question is not “how bad was it compared to other stories?” but “do I have the symptoms that require recovery work?” The severity of the external behavior is less important than the specific nature of the harm it produced. Covert narcissistic abuse often produces significant harm through behavior that looks mild from the outside. Your experience doesn’t need to be the worst story to require recovery.
Related Reading
- Malkin, Craig. Rethinking Narcissism: The Bad. And Surprising Good. About Feeling Special. HarperCollins, 2015.
- Bancroft, Lundy. Why Does He Do That? Inside the Minds of Angry and Controlling Men. Berkley Books, 2002.
- Herman, Judith. Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence. From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. Basic Books, 1992.
- Freyd, Jennifer J. Betrayal Trauma: The Logic of Forgetting Childhood Abuse. Harvard University Press, 1996.
- Greenberg, Eleanor. Borderline, Narcissistic, and Schizoid Adaptations: The Pursuit of Love, Admiration, and Safety. CreateSpace Independent Publishing, 2016.
- Walker, Pete. Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving. Azure Coyote, 2013.
If any of this lands close to home and you’re ready for clinical support, you can connect with Annie.
References
Peer-Reviewed Research (Vancouver)
- van der Kolk BA, Wang JB, Yehuda R, Bedrosian L, Coker AR, Harrison C, et al. Effects of MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD on self-experience. PLoS One. 2024;19(1):e0295926. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0295926. PMID: 38198456.
- Gómez JM, Smith CP, Gobin RL, Tang SS, Freyd JJ. Collusion, torture, and inequality: Understanding the actions of the American Psychological Association as institutional betrayal. J Trauma Dissociation. 2016;17(5):527-544. PMID: 27427782.
- Herman JL, Perry JC, van der Kolk BA. Childhood trauma in borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146(4):490-5. PMID: 2929750.
Books & Cultural Sources (Chicago Author-Date)
- Malkin, Craig. Rethinking narcissism. HarperCollins Publishers and Blackstone Audio, 2015.
- Walker, Pete. Complex PTSD. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013.
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Annie Wright, LMFT
LMFT · Relational Trauma Specialist · W.W. Norton Author
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Annie Wright is a licensed psychotherapist (LMFT #95719) and trauma-informed executive coach with over 25,000 clinical hours. She works with driven women. Including Silicon Valley leaders, physicians, and entrepreneurs. In repairing the psychological foundations beneath their impressive lives. Annie is the founder and former CEO of Evergreen Counseling, a multimillion-dollar trauma-informed therapy center she built, scaled, and successfully exited. A regular contributor to Psychology Today, her expert commentary has appeared in Forbes, Business Insider, Inc., NBC, and The Information. She is currently writing her first book with W.W. Norton.
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